Hero Worship

Article by:- Nimmy Tiju, Lecturer, Dept of English, St Alberts College, Ernakulam.

Hero worship is a kind of mania spread among modern people. It is a kind of blind imitation without any base. They imitate others without thinking whether it is good or bad. People worship persons in cricket, film, models and men of success in various fields.

If a person wins fifty runs in a cricket match its merit goes to him. He has its benefit. People who are watching the game would not gain anything. The spectators are clamouring and shrieking as if they got same profit. It is a pity to think that people are worshipping them as their Gods.

Heroes do not have any extraordinary quality. He is just an ordinary man. He came to the zenith of his success through his hardwork. To some, film stars are Gods. They are trying to imitate them in every deed and in words. One thing we have to realize is that film stars are mere puppets in the hands of directors and producers.

We give more importance to emotion than to reason. We fail to realize who should be our real heroes. It is our parents who make us what we are. No film stars, no models would help us in our predicaments. Parents are the physical incarnation of God. Models, filmstars, cricket players etc are sincere to their job. It is this quality which helped them to attain their goal.

We fail to realize the sacrificing mentality of people working in the army. They are giving their lives for the sake of us. If a war breaks out it is they who will have to face the toils and hardshipsof war inorder to protect our nation. No politicians, no cricket players will sacrifice their life for our sake. People in the Army and Navy are the men who should win our appreciation. We give more importance to peripheral glitterings. Even governments would not show any mercy to them or to their family. Works of God. No man can determine the fate of his fellow being.

It is a pity, modern man is making a new God. He could not understand that this fellow being is also a man having the same limitations and qualities of a man. Now he wants a duplicate God inorder to satisfy his hunger to find a God. If he fails in his search he becomes an atheist.

Man tries to state that he is an incarnation of God. And he forces others to adore him. What a pity to think, now man fails to understand who should be adored and who should not be. Now he is losing his rational power.

Mycorrhizae

Mycorrhizae denotes the symbiotic association between a fungus and the root of the plant. In symbiotic associations both the partners are benefitted. The fungus that enters in this symbiotic association is called mycorrhizal fungus. This is also known as ‘fungus root’.

It was Frank the German Botanist who discovered it in 1885. Usually the fungus associates with the roots of higher plants and thus mycorrhizal association plays a significant role for the proper absorption of minerals by the root systemand this markedly influences the general growth of higher plants.

On the basis of morphology and anatomy, mycorrhizae are classified into ectomycorrhizae, endomycorrhizae and ectendomycorrhizae. In ectomycorrhizae, the absorbing roots are almost completely enveloped by a mantle of very compact hyphae by the fungus. From this external mantle certain hyphae enter the cortex of roots and confine to the intercellular spaces of the cortical cells. The stelar portion and also the meristem at the apex are not inhabited by the fungus within the cortex of the root, the intercellular hyphae ramily extensively in the form of the reticulum to which the name ‘Harting-net’ is given. Plants like pines, cedrus, quercus, fagus etc develop ectomycorrhizae. The common fungal partners include cortinarius, amanita, rhizopogon, scleroderma etc. The fungal partners usually belong to basidiomycetes and ascomycetes.

In endomycorrhizae, the mycorrhizae is confined to the cells of the root system, causing internal infections of the cortex of root and the rhizomes of plant. The fungus is confined intracellularly. The most important role of the fungus of endomycorrhizae  is the disintegration of soil particles and the absorption and transport of these released particles into the soil. The formation of endomycorrhizae do  not alter the  morphology of the root system. Since the fungus is confined in the root cells and are not grown externally root hairs are normally formed on the surface of the roots. This is commonly seen in orchids, conifers like Tuniperus, sequoia etc.The endomycorrhizae are of 2 types depending on the nature of fungus. In the first case the fungus has separate mycelium and in the second the hyphae consist of aseptate type. The mycorrhizae formed of aseptate fungi are popularly called VAM [vesicular-arbuscular nycorrhizae]. The hyphae of this fungus branch dichotomously and produce vesicles called haustoria. These vesicles are present with in the host cells called artuscules. This kind of association is very common in bryophytes, gymnosperms and pteridophytes.

In ectendomycorrhizae, both the characters of ecto and endomycorrhizae are seen. Since these relationships are symbiotic, both the partners are equally benefitted. The root produces sugars, aminoacids etc which can be shared by the fungus. The fungus absorbs nutrients for the plants from the soil.

It is found that mostly woodt plants develop mycorrhizae for better absorption of minerals by them. The proper growth of many woody plants especially of forest trees is significantly related to mycorrhizae owing to its great capacity to absorb minerals and supply them to the roots of plants. It is seen that the seedlings of many forest trees fail to establish their growth on grasslands even if they are grown in situations of abundant supply of nutrients. If some forest soil containing the correct fungal partners is mixed with the soil around the seedlings, they are found to restore normal growth. This proves that many of the forest trees establish in the soil with the help of their fungal partner.

Also in several woody plants the mycorrhizae is not a must but it is a helping agent for better and sufficient absorption of mineral elementsfrom nutrient deficient soils. This is because several plants grow normally if they are well supplied with surplus amount of minerals especially nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium etc. even if the roots donot associate with the fungus and form mycorrhizae. But these plants show only very poor growth when mineral quantity of the soil is very low. In this situation mycorrhizae plays a significant role.

Thus it is seen that the mycorrhizae if present in root of higher plants, can increase the absorptive capacity of the root system. It is also found that fungus cannot be multiplied in mass and hence its application directly to field crops becomes very difficult. Hence the fungul propagules are applied to those plants which can be first planted in nurssery and later they are transplanted.

Article by Anju Antony, St Teresas College, Cochin.

Financial Exclusion to Financial Inclusion

Dr. Rajagopala Nair, Dept. of Commerce, St. Albert’s College, Ernakulam                                                  

Introduction                                                                                                                                             

Access to finance, especially by the poor and vulnerable groups, is an essential requisite for employment, economic growth, poverty alleviation and social upliftment. Further, financial inclusion will enable the poor and the rustics of our country to open a bank account to save and invest, to borrow and to repay, to insure and to take part in the credit. This will enable them to break the chain of poverty. Till 1960s, Indian banks were more conservative and inward looking, concerned with their profits. Banking services were greatly used by a segment of the people. Class banking was prevalent during those days. Majority of the banks were private commercial banks, local oriented and primarily serving the business community. They had limited range of activities. Competition did not exist during those days. They basically concentrated on selling their loans to those who are financially sound and are capable of providing security for their borrowings. The banks tend to positively appropriate their liabilities for keeping their funds safe and give modest interest on deposits. However, after the Nationalization of 14 major commercial banks in 1969, Indian banks woke from their isolation, and evaluated the rapidly changing environment. The slogan during the Bank Nationalization was ‘transformation from class banking to mass banking’. The banking industry in India has undergone drastic changes during the last two decades. Reforms since the early nineties, has paved the way for the  economic transformation of the  country.

Rural Banking Scenario

In India more than 70 per cent of households live in rural areas. Therefore, existence of rural banks assumes a significant importance. A rural bank is one whch serves a population of less than 10,000. Since Nationalisation, the lending to the select elite in the urban areas gave way to lending to the rural masses. The policy makers recognized the fact that the potential of rural India should not be under estimated. The banks have to play a dual role in rural areas to institutionalize the rural savings for developmental activities as a part of commercial banking. Then the help in the social upliftment of the poor as a part of social banking. As at the end of March 1992, there were 60,528 branches of commercial banks ( including RRBs ) in the country, of which 35,275 ( 58.3 per cent ) were in rural areas as against 22.3 per cent at the time of bank nationalization. In spite of huge branch expansion in rural areas and developmental policies of the Government it is to be noted that the commercial banks have not made systematic efforts to squeeze the rural business. Often it is felt that the commercial banks have started their branches in rural areas not to satisfy the rural asses but to satisfy the Govt. Inadequate management and marketing competence in individual banks is the major cause for the non-viability of rural banks. Analysis of the available statistics on rural banks reveals that the rural deposits in the country shows a compound growth rate of 27.29 per cent during the 39 years period from 1969 to 2008. It is worth noting that the number of rural branches will form 45 per cent of the total  bank branches in the country. The compound growth rate of rural credit of the country is 30.57 per cent during the 39 years from 1969 to 2008. Hardships in obtaining loans from the banks has paved the way for the growth of private money lenders in rural areas especially in States like Kerala.

Financial Exclusion:

 According to K.C.Chakrabarty “Financial Exclusion is the lack of access by certain consumers to appropriate, low cost, fair and safe financial products and services from main stream providers.” There are three types of exclusions : (a) people who do not have any accss to a regulated financial system; (b) people who have limited access to banks and other financial services; and (3) individuals who have inappropriate products. Mostly low income, unemployed and illiterate people, women and disabled are excluded from the formal financial services. Lack of Banking habits, high transaction cost, lack of banking knowledge and insufficiency of knowledge on banking products prevents the unbanked people from knocking the door steps of banks. Financial exclusion means : No Savings, No Insurance, No access to money advice, No affordable credit, No Bank account and No assets. There are people who desire the use of financial services, but are denied access to the same. In countries with a large rural population like India, Financial Exclusion has a geographic dimension as well. Inaccessibility, distance and lack of proper infrastructure hinder financial inclusion. Going by the available data on the number of savings bank accounts and even assuming that one person has only one account, on an all India basis less than 60 per cent of adult population in the country have bank accounts. To compound matters, there are regional disparities among different regions of the country in this respect. In the rural parts of the country, where the farming community is living, the farm house holds having bank accounts is showing a miserable picture. The region-wise data regarding the farm house holds not having access to formal credit is given in the table. The unbanked population is higher in the North Eastern and Eastern Regions as compared to other regions. Further the extent of credit inclusion is even lower at 14 per cent of adult population. The financially excluded sections largely comprise marginal farmers, landless labourers, self employed and unorganized sector enterprises, ethnic minorities, socially excluded groups, senior citizens and women. While there are pockets of large excluded population in all parts of the country, the North-East, Eastern and Central region contain most of the financially excluded population.

Table showing the percentage of farm house holds not having access to formal credit

Region	Percentage to total farm households
Northern	74.95
North-Eastern	95.91
Eastern	81.26
Central	77.59
Western	56.02
Southern	57.25
Union Territories	89.86

The Farm households not accessing credit from formal sources as proportion to total farm households is especially high at 95.91 %, 81.26% and 77.59% in the North-Eastern, Eastern and Central Regions. The Southern and Western Regions, on the other hand, exhibits relatively better level of access to forma/non-formal sources when comparing with the All India level of 72.7%. This is mainly on account of spread of banking habits and a more robust infrastructure.

Social Exclusion:

Another facet of exclusion which needs to be addressed is ‘Social Exclusion’ – which is an extreme consequence of what happens when people do not get a fair deal throughout their lives, often because of disadvantages they face at birth, and this can be transmitted from one generation to the next. Social exclusion is about more than income poverty. It is a short and term for what can happen when people or areas have a combination of problems such as unemployment, discrimination, poor skills low incomes and poor housing. Their problems are linked and mutually reinforcing.

Financial Inclusion:

Providing various financial services like, loans, insurance, payments, remittances and financial advisory services to the downtrodden who have no access to the formal financial structure of the country is the basic objective of Financial Inclusion. An open and efficient society is always characterized by the unrestrained access to public goods and services. As banking services are viewed as public goods, availability of banking and payment services to the entire population without discrimination of any type is called Financial Inclusion. Unrestrained access to public goods and services is the sine qua non of an open and efficient society.

Financial Inclusion is a critical component of the inclusive growth envisaged for the overall development of the economy. The spread of banking facilities has been uneven in the country, throwing up challenges for achieving financial inclusion. Even after Nationalisation of commercial banks in 1969 and in 1980, a good proportion of households, specially rural, is still outside the coverage of the formal banking system. Often it is asked, why are so many bankable people of rural India are unbanked? An inclusive financial sector would provide access to credit for all ‘bankable’ people and firms, to insurance for all insurable people and firms and to savings and payments services for everyone.

The working definition of Financial Inclusion - “Financial Inclusion may be defined as the process of ensuring access to financial services and timely and adequate credit where needed by vulnerable groups such as weaker sections and low income groups at an affordable cost.”

Initiates of RBI for Financial Inclusion:

In the Annual Policy Statement of the RBI ( 2005-06), policies were made to encourage banks to provide extensive banking services to the unbanked mass of the country. The nature, scope and cost of services would be monitored to assess whether there is any denial, implicit or explicit, of basic banking services to the common person. Banks are being urged to review their existing practices to align them with the objective of financial inclusion.

A study on the Income and Savings of Rural Bank customers of Kerala :

The author has conducted a Correlation Analysis for measuring the intensity or magnitude of linear relationship between income and savings of rural bank customers in the State of Kerala. This Analysis was conducted on the Primary Data collected from 3000 rural bank customers who have been selected as a part of his project study on “Poverty Alleviation Programme in Kerala”. The study reveals that the average income of a rural bank customer in the State is Rs.2544 per month and average saving is Rs.432 per month. Standard deviation of income is Rs.2236.98 per month and standard deviation of savings is Rs.930.26 per month. Coefficient of correlation is 0.8286. There is a high degree of correlation between the income and savings of rural bank customers in the State. It is also revealed in the study that the the saving capacity of the higher income group is more than that of lower income group. An increase in income will tend to have an increase in savings.

Coefficient of Determination:

 This gives the percentage variation I the dependent variable that is accounted for by the independent variable. The above analysis reveals a coefficient of determination of 0.7441. It means, as the increases, savings will also increase. About 74 per cent of the increase in the savings is purely due to the increase in the income of rural bank customers. Approximately 26 per cent of the increase in savings is not due to the increase in income but due some other qualitative factors.

Regression Analysis:

              Regression line of saving ( y ) on income ( x ) is given by                               

Y = 0.3587x-481

This equation can be used for the prediction of saving for a specified income. The application of this equation will be clear from the following illustrations:             

Illustration1:

              When x is 0, ie, when there is no income

              Y = -48.1 ie. there will be a debt of Rs.481

Illustration 2 :

              When savings ( y ) is 0, that is when 0.3587x – 481 < 0

              ie. 0.3587x < 481

              ie. when x ≤1340 ( approximately )

It implies that, when the monthly income is below Rs.1340, the savings will be negative. A minimum monthly income of Rs.1340 is essential to avoid debt by a rural bank customer.

Illustration 3 :

When income is Rs.5000

y = 0.3587x5000 – 481

y = 1312.5

Illustration 4 :

When income is Rs.10,000

y = 0.3587x10000 – 481

y = 3106

On an average, rural customers with a monthly income of Rs.5000 and Rs.10,000 may save Rs.1313 and Rs.3106 per month respectively. An analysis of this nature will help the authorities and the policy makers to identify the bankable people and they may be brought to the main stream banking and credit system of the country.

Neurotransmitters Functional Balance in Health and Disease Management

By:- Dr. C. S. Paulose
Molecular Neurobiology and Cell Biology Unit, Centre for Neuroscience, Head, Department of Biotechnology, Cochin University of Science and Technology, Cochin 682 022, Kerala, India. e-mail: cspaulose@cusat.ac.in

Abstract

The recent developments in neurobiology have rendered new prominence and potential to study about the structure and function of brain and related disorders. Human behaviour is the net result of neural control of the communication between brain cells. Neurotransmitters are chemicals that are used to relay, amplify and modulate electrical signals between neurons and/or another cell. It mediates rapid intercellular communication through the nervous system by interacting with cell surface receptors. These receptor subtypes often trigger second messenger signaling pathways that regulate the activity of ion channels. The functional balance of different neurotransmitters such as Acetylcholine (Ach), Dopamine (DA), Serotonin (5-HT), Norepinephrine (NE), Epinephrine (EPI), Glutamate and Gamma amino butyric acid (GABA) regulates the growth, division and other vital functions of a normal cell / organism. Any change in neurotransmitters’ functional balance will result in the failure of cell function and lead to the occurrence of diseases. Abnormalities in the production or functioning of neurotransmitters have been implicated in a number of neurological disorders like Schizophrenia, Alzheimer’s, Epilepsy, Depression and Parkinson’s disease. Changes in central and peripheral neuronal signaling system is also noted in diabetes, hypoglycaemia, hypoxia, cancer, cell proliferation, alcoholism and aging. Elucidation of neurotransmitters receptor interaction pathways and gene expression regulation by second messengers and transcriptional factors in health and disease conditions can lead to new small molecules for development of therapeutic agents to improve neurological disease conditions. Increased awareness of the global effects of neurological disorders should help health care planners and the neurological community set appropriate priorities in research, prevention and management of these diseases.

Key Words: Neurotransmitters, neurotransmission, neurological disorders, disease management.

Introduction

Neurons are the basic cell of the brain and nervous system. Neurons communicate to each other by releasing neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters are the chemicals which account for the transmission of signals from one neuron to the next across synapses. It transmits information within the brain and from the brain to all the parts of the body. Neurotransmitters exert their effect by binding to specific receptors on the neuronal postsynaptic membrane. The activity of a neuron depends on the balance between the number of excitatory and inhibitory processes affecting it, either processes occurring individually or simultaneously. The consequences of the neurotransmitter receptor function can influence the regulation of metabolic manifestations in hypothyroidism, hypertension, diabetes and cell proliferation directly by central nervous system function or through the hypothalamic-pituitary-end organ axis. Hormones such as insulin, glucagon, thyroxine, tri- iodothyronine, glucocorticoids function as growth regulators. The functional difference of neurotransmitters and hormones through receptor subtypes can lead to differential gene expression. The functional balance of different neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine (Ach), dopamine (DA), serotonin (5-HT), norepinephrine (NE), epinephrine (EPI), glutamate and gamma amino butyric acid (GABA) and various hormones regulates the growth, division and other vital functions of a normal cell / organism.

Most neurological and psychiatric disorders involve selective or preferential impairments of neurotransmitter systems. Therefore, studies of functional neurotransmitter pathophysiology in human brain are of unique importance in view of the development of effective, mechanism-based, therapeutic modalities. The use of neurosurgically removed fresh animal tissue samples in which receptors, transporters, ion channels and enzymes essentially retain their natural environment, represents a unique experimental approach to enlarge our understanding of human brain processes. Using this experimental approach, many human brain functional proteins, in particular neurotransmitter receptors have been characterized in terms of localization, function and pharmacological properties.

Parkinson's disease, a neurological disorder involves the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the nigrostriatal tract, which projects from the substantia nigra pars compacta in the midbrain to the striatum and is essential for the control of movement. The disease leads to tremor, rigidity and hyperkinesias. Reports show a vulnerability of parkin gene to modification by dopamine, the principal neurotransmitter lost in Parkinson disease, suggesting a mechanism for the progressive loss of parkin function in dopaminergic neurons during aging and sporadic Parkinson disease. Recent studies from our laboratory have shown that the alterations in dopamine receptor subtypes gene expression during Parkinson’s disease were reversed by serotonin and gamma aminobutyric acid supplementation (Nandhu et al., 2009).

Epilepsy is syndrome of episodic brain dysfunction characterized by recurrent unpredictable spontaneous seizures. Temporal-lobe epilepsy is characterized by a loss of glutamate-stimulated GABA release that is secondary to a reduction in the number of GABA transporters (Matthew et al., 2002). Electrophysiological studies of human temporal-lobe epilepsy suggest that a loss of hippocampal GABA-mediated inhibition may underlie the neuronal hyperexcitability (Knowles, 1992). Glutamate or analogue excitatory amino acids are the principal excitatory neurotransmitters in the mammalian CNS, which is also involved in this disease. In the hippocampus, two different types of glutamate receptors, the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) and α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole-4-propionic acid (AMPA) receptors, each linked to different classes of ion channels are coactivated on the release of glutamate from presynaptic terminals (Bekkers & Stevens, 1989). Pilocarpine treatment which is characterized by generalized convulsive status epilepticus (SE) in rodents well represents the characteristic neuropathological findings in the hippocampus of TLE patients (Paulose et al., 2006; Reas et al., 2007). Baccopa monnieri (Brahmi) is recommended in formulations for the management of a range of mental conditions including anxiety, poor cognition, lack of concentration, and epilepsy. Anti-epileptic property of the leaf extracts of Bacopa monnieri showed their regulatory role through the muscarinic, glutamate and serotonin receptor subtypes (Paulose et al., 2006; Reas et al., 2007; Amee et al., 2009)

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an irreversible, progressive disorder in which brain cells (neurons) deteriorate, resulting in the loss of cognitive functions, primarily memory, judgment and reasoning, movement coordination, and pattern recognition. In advanced stages of the disease, all memory and mental functioning may be lost. It is the most common cause of dementia.

Patients also frequently have noncognitive symptoms, such as anxiety, depression, apathy, and psychosis that impair daily living. The condition predominantly affects the cerebral cortex and hippocampus, which lose mass and shrink (atrophy) as the disease advances. Mudher & Lovestone, (2002) reported neuronal loss or atrophy, mainly in the temporoparietal cortex along with an inflammatory response to the deposition of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. The loss of memory is related to the loss of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) from both cholinergic and noncholinergic neurons of the diseased brain. However, AChE activity is increased around amyloid plaques. This increase in AChE is of significance for therapeutic strategies using AChE inhibitors. With no cure it sight for Alzheimer's disease, efforts are undertaken to lessen the symptoms once it is diagnosed. Glycosylation of AChE may be a useful diagnostic marker for AD (Sáez-Valero et al., 1999). There are medications that can lessen agitation, anxiety, unpredictable behavior, improve sleeping patterns, and treat depression. Evidences from our laboratory showed that maintenance of neurotransmitter and receptor subtypes balance can reduce and postpone the occurrence of neurological diseases (Paulose et al., 1998).

Apart from the central nervous system, neurotransmitters also play an important role in diseases associated with the peripheral system. Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic disorder associated with insulin deficiency, which affects the carbohydrate metabolism linked with various central and peripheral complications. The pancreatic islets are innervated by parasympathetic, sympathetic and sensory nerves. Several neurotransmitters are stored within the terminals of these nerves. The central nervous system through parasympathetic and sympathetic pathways regulates insulin secretion from pancreatic islets and maintains glucose homeostasis. An increased turnover of DA to norepinephrine has been reported in the pancreatic islets, which could damage the stimulatory effect of DA (Morgan & Montagu, 1985). NE, a stress hormone at higher concentration not only inhibited the DA uptake but also its stimulatory effect on insulin secretion in the pancreatic islets (Eswar et al., 2006). Medicinal plants are a major source for drug discovery in spite of the great development of synthetic molecules. Consequently, the uses of traditional medicinal plants extract in the treatment of various diseases have been flourished. Aegle marmelose and Costus pictus are known herbal medicine for the management of diabetes mellitus (Gireesh et al., 2008a; 2008b).

Neurons of the central nervous system are critically dependent upon a continuous supply of glucose and oxygen. The mammalian brain is exquisitely sensitive to reduction in the supply of glucose (Hypoglycemia) and oxygen (Hypoxia). Insulin regulates blood glucose levels by slowing the release of glucose by the liver and stimulating its entry into other cells. Hypoglycemia remains as the major obstacle to achieving the established benefits of intensive insulin therapy. Repeated episodes of low blood sugar causes neuronal death in brain causing disorientation and confusion, eventually progressing to seizures, partial paralysis or loss of consciousness. An increased number of glutamate receptors and the increased glutamate production will lead to glutamate excitotoxicity and neuronal degeneration which has an impact on the cognitive and memory function (Joseph et al., 2007; 2008). An alteration in dopamine D2 receptors in hippocampus was also observed from the recent studies from our laboratory (Remya et al., 2009).

Hypoxia generally refers to a lack of oxygen in any part of the body. In a neurological context, it refers to a reduction of oxygen to the brain despite adequate amounts of blood. A failure to deliver oxygen and glucose to the brain causes a cascade of abnormal events. In neuronal cells, responses to a decrease in oxygen availability or hypoxia include both facilitation and inhibition of neurotransmitter release. During experimental conditions, hypoxic rats show a change in brain adrenergic and glutaminergic receptor function resulting in abnormal behavioural pattern. Immediate glucose administration prior to oxygen supplementation was found to reduce the adverse effects of hypoxia at the molecular level (Finla et al., 2008). The oxygen availability to the infant should be made with out delay during the change over from umbilical cord to the atmospheric air. The more delay occurring will lead to neuronal death which will affect the intellectual capacity of the individual at later stages. The network usually formed in the adult is approximately 3.2 million kilometers for all the functions. If there is neuronal death the functional network will be less.

Neurotransmitter receptors are usually restricted to neuronal cells, but the signalling pathways activated by these receptors are widely distributed in both neural and non-neural cells. The role of the neurotransmitters- NE, 5-HT and their receptors using partial hepatectomised rat model has been studied in vivo for controlled cell proliferation. It is also suggested that an intact nervous system is an important component of the regulatory system for liver regeneration either through direct innervations of the liver or through indirect modulation of DNA synthesis resulting in cell proliferation. Studies from our lab have shown that serotonin can act as a potent hepatocyte co-mitogen and induce DNA synthesis in primary cultures of rat hepatocytes, which is mediated through the serotonin S2 receptors (Sudha & Paulose, 1998). GABA acts as an inhibitory signal through GABAA receptor while it acts as a co-mitogen through GABAB receptors during in vitro hepatocyte proliferation (Biju et al., 2001a; 2001b). Studies from our laboratory have shown that neurotransmitters, such as those in the pancreatic islet, can influence the synthesis and release of insulin (Mohanan et al., 2005a, b; 2006; Renuka et al., 2005; 2006; Ani et al., 2006a, b, c; Eswar et al., 2006; Balaram et al., 2008).

Spinal cord injuries are often caused by road traffic accidents, whereas fall from height is another significant cause of injury. The spinal cord contains nerve fibres which carry messages between the brain and different parts of the body. If it is damaged by different levels of shearing, one or several of the body functions are impaired and even total paraplegia. In the present scenario there is no procedure for restoring locomotor function to such individuals. Our results showed that GABA and 5HT acting through their specific receptors play a crucial role in the spinal cord regeneration in combination with bone marrow cells. There is proliferation and differentiation of cells re-establishing the connections in the injured spinal cord resulting in the functional recovery of the individual rat (Paulose et al., 2009).

Endogenous progenitor cells can be harnessed to replace neurons lost in neurodegenerative diseases but requires the development of methods to stimulate their proliferation and differentiation. Researchers are also exploring a process called trans-differentiation —“tricking” cells of the bone marrow to produce brain cells or muscle cells. Experiments are done using different neurotransmitters – serotonin and GABA with and without pluripotent bone marrow cells extracted from the same individual given to the site of damage re-established the connection and the functional recovery was observed.

Scientists are developing a number of strategies for producing dopamine neurons from human stem cells in the laboratory for transplantation into humans with Parkinson's disease. The successful generation of an unlimited supply of dopamine neurons could make neuro transplantation widely available for Parkinson's patients at some point in the future. Researchers are now examining the possibility of transplanting GABAergic neurons in the hippocampal region for the treatment of epilepsy.

Neurotransmitters + pluripotent cell infusion at site of injury

Neuronal network re- established after treatment at the damaged site

Conclusion

As the world's aged population increases, the relative effects of many disorders of the nervous system, including stroke and dementia are numerous. Increased awareness of the global effects of neurological disorders should help health care planners and the neurological community to set up appropriate priorities in research, prevention, and management of Parkinson’s disease, epilepsy and Spinal cord injured paraplegics.

Acknowledgements

Dr. C. S. Paulose thanks DAE, DBT, DST, ICMR, UGC, Govt. of India and STEC, Kerala for providing necessary facilities.

Reference

Amee K, Pretty MA, Jes P, Paulose CS. (2009). Down-regulation of cerebellar 5-HT2C receptors in pilocarpine-induced epilepsy in rats: Therapeutic role of Bacopa monnieri extract. Journal of Neurological Sciences. (In Press).

Ani DV, Savitha B, Paulose CS. (2006). Decreased alpha1-adrenergic receptor binding in the cerebral cortex and brain stem during pancreatic regeneration in rats. Neurochemical Research 31: 727-737

Ani VD, Finla C, Paulose CS. (2006). Decreased alpha 2- adrenergic receptor in the brain stem and pancreatic islets during pancreatic regeneration in weanling rats. Life Sciences, 79: 1507-1513.

Ani VD, Remya R, Paulose CS. (2006). Enhanced β- adrenergic receptors in the brain and pancreas during pancreatic regeneration in weanling rats. Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, DOI 10.1007/s11010-006-9142-6.

Balarama K, Akash KG, Paulose CS. (2008). γ-Aminobutyric acid receptor functional decrease in the hypothalamus during Pancreatic regeneration in rats. Pancreas.

Bekkers JM, Stevens CF. (1989). NMDA and non-NMDA receptors are co-localized at individual excitatory synapses in cultured rat hippocampus. Nature 341: 230-233.

Biju MP, Pyroja S, rajesh KNV, Paulose CS. (2001a). Hypothalamic GABA receptor functional regulation and liver cell proliferation. Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, 216: 65-70

Biju MP, Pyroja S, rajesh KNV, Paulose CS. (2001b). Hepatic GABA A receptor functional regulation during liver cell proliferation. Hepatology Research, 21: 136-146

Eswar Shankar PN, Santhosh KT, Paulose CS. (2006). DArgic Regulation of Glucose-induced Insulin Secretion through DA D2 Receptors in the Pancreatic Islets In Vitro. IUBMB Life 58: 157-163.

Finla C, Amee K, Paulose CS. (2008). Acetylcholine Esterase Activity and Behavioural Response in Hypoxia Induced Neonatal Rats: Effect of Glucose, Oxygen and Epinephrine Supplementation. Brain and Cognition.

Gireesh G, Balarama KS, T. Peeyush K, Paulose CS. (2008). Decreased muscarinic M1 receptor Gene Expression in the Hypothalamus Brainstem and Pancreatic islets of Streptozotocin induced diabetic rats. Journal of Neuroscience Research DOI: 10.1002/jnr.21544.

Gireesh G, Santhosh KT, Binoy J, Paulose CS. (2009) Antihyperglycemic and insulin secretory activity of Costus pictus leaf extract in streptozotocin induced diabetic rats and invitro pancreatic islet culture Journal of Ethanopharmacology 3 :26

Joseph A, Antony S, Paulose CS. (2008). Increased glutamate receptor gene expression in the cerebral cortex of insulin induced hypoglycemic and streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Neuroscience 156: 298-304.

Joseph A, Robinson R, Paulose CS. (2007). Enhanced [3H] Glutamate Binding in the Cerebellum of Insulin Induced Hypoglycaemic and Streptozotocin Induced Diabetic Rats. Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology 10.1007/s10571-007-9198-1

Knowles WD, Awad IA, Nayel MH. (1992). Differences of in vitro electrophysiology of hippocampal neurons from epileptic patients with mesiotemporal sclerosis versus structural lesions. Epilepsia 33: 601−609

Matthew J, Kathryn MR, Dennis DS. (2002). Hippocampal GABA transporter function in temporal-lobe epilepsy. Nature 376: 174 – 177.

Mohanan VV, Balarama KS, Paulose CS. (2005a). Decreased 5-HT1A receptor gene expression and 5-HT1A receptor protein in the cerebral cortex and brain stem during pancreatic regeneration in rats. Neurochemical Research 30: 25-32.

Mohanan VV, Finla C, Paulose CS. (2005b). Decreased 5-HT2C receptor binding in the cerebral cortex and brain stem during pancreatic regeneration in rats. Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry 272: 165-170.

Mohanan VV, Reas K, Paulose CS. (2006). Hypothalamic 5-HT functional regulation through 5-HT1A and 5-HT2C receptors during pancreatic regeneration. Life Sciences 78: 1603-1609

Morgan NG, Montagu W. (1985). Studies on the mechanism of inhibition of glucose induced insulin secretion by noradrenalin in rat islets of langerhans. Biochem J 226: 571- 576.

Mudher A, Lovestone S. (2002). Alzheimer's disease-do tauists and baptists finally shake hands? Trends Neurosci 25: 22-6.

Nandhu MS, Fabia ET, Paulose CS. (2009) Dopamine D1 receptor gene expression studies in unilateral 6-hydroxydopamine lesioned Parkinson's rat: Effect of 5-HT, GABA and bone marrow cell supplementation. Journal of Molecular Neuroscience (In Press).

Paulose CS, John PS, Padmarag C, et al., (2009). Spinal cord regeneration and functional recovery : Neurotransmitters combination and bone marrow cells supplementation. Current Science. In Press.

Paulose CS, Padayatti PS, Sudha B. (1998). Neurotransmitter-Hormonal Regulation of Diabetes and Liver Regeneration. In: Topics in Comparative Endocrinology and Reproduction. Edited by K.P. Joy, A. Krishna and C. Halder, Narosa Publishing House, New Delhi 561-570.

Paulose CS, Sudha B, P.S. Padayatti. (1996). Brain control of hypertension, diabetes and cell proliferation: A recent concept. In Biotechnology for development. Compiled by M.R. Das and Satish Mundayur. Published by the State Committee on Science Technology and Environment, Kerala, India, Jan., pp104-118

Reas SK, Amee K, Paulose CS. (2007). Decreased glutamate receptor binding and NMDA R1 gene expression in the hippocampus of pilocarpine induced epileptic rats: neuroprotective role of Bacopa monnieri extract. Epilepsy and Behavior. DOI:10.1016/j.yebeh.2007.09.021.

Remya R, Amee K, Paulose CS. (2009). Enhanced Dopamine D1 and D2 Receptor Gene Expression in the Hippocampus of Hypoglycaemic and Diabetic Rats. Cellular and Molecural Neurobiology, DOI: 10.1007/s10571-008-9328-4

Renuka TR, Remya R, Paulose CS. (2006). Increased insulin secretion by muscarinic M1 and M3 receptor function from rat pancreatic islets in vitro. Neurochemical Research 31: 313-20.

Renuka TR, Savitha B, Paulose CS. (2005). Muscarinic M1 and M3 receptor binding alterations in pancreas during pancreatic regeneration of young rats. Endocrine Research 31: 259-270

Sáez-Valero J, Sberna G, McLean CA, Small DH. (1999). Molecular Isoform Distribution and Glycosylation of Acetylcholinesterase Are Altered in Brain and Cerebrospinal Fluid of Patients with Alzheimer's Disease. J Neurochem 72: 1471-4159.

Sudha B, Paulose CS. (1998). Induction of DNA synthesis in primary cultures of rat hepatocytes by serotonin: Possible involvement of Serotonin S2 receptor. Journal of Hepatology 27, 62 - 66 

Chinese Nets

Article by:- Deepa Leslie, Lecturer, Dept of English, St Alberts College, Ernakulam.

Cochin is the gift of Periyar to the people of Kerala. In cochin, history is alive, active and vibrant. Its numerous and magnificent monuments beckons every visitor to the city to delve deep into the history of this ancient charming land. Its sprawling bungalows have an old charm and the continuous glow of foreign visitors speaks volumes for her hospitality and warmth.

The Anglo Indian Community of cochin traces its ancestry back to the flowery Portuguese rule. Even the ancient trees along the highways and by banks of the city have much to say about the bygone days of this daughter of Periyar or the Queen of the Arabian Sea. At one time, Europeans came to speak their fortunes here. Today the younger generations of cochinites, like the others in other parts of India go abroad to seek their fortunes.

It was generally held by the historians that the pre-portuguese cochin was occupied by fishermen and the world renowned Chinese nets (Cheena Vala) a characteristic feature of Cochin Coast and its suburbs were brought from China in the hey day of China – Malabar trade during 13th and 14th centuries.

Our recent studies shows that these Chinese nets were introduced by the later Casado settlers of Cochin from Macau. The names of the different parts of these Chinese nets used even today are in Portuguese language, which is a definite indication of its Portuguese Origin. The net used for catching the fish is called rede, its edge is borda, the arms of wooden parts which hold the extensive net together is brasao, while the flexible ring on the top on which the entire brasao moves is argola. In addition there are Corda and Pedra for balancing the movement of the net. There isCaluada on which the fishermen moves up and down and the posts which support the entire structure from the river bottom are called Odora.

The Casado settlers from Macau and Malawa also brought ‘Cheeni Chatti’ (Chinese frying pan) and a delicious dish known as ‘Cheenisampal’ which even today is a favourite dish among the coastal Christians of kerala with Portuguese heritage. The fishing nets introduced by the Casado settlers added another item for trade, the dried fish, in addition to the traditional spices of kerala. The popular name for dried fish in local terminology is bakkal (vakkal) which has its roots in the Portuguese ‘Bacalhau’

share thisss

Entrepreneurial Motivation in Kerala _Dr.Rajagopala Nair and Mohan P.Philip

Dr.Rajagopala Nair and Mohan P.Philip 
Research Dept. of Commerce
St.Albert’s College, Ernakulam

Legitimacy for entrepreneurship as a career option is very low among the social circles of Kerala, though small entrepreneurship development has become a crucial part of predominant moral code of governance in all countries. Due to low level legitimacy, young people, with entrepreneurial talents opt for other career opportunities or migrate to distant places in search of greener pastures This phenomenon can be verified by observing the performance of entrepreneurs in the industrial front of Kerala. The quality of entrepreneurial stock of a society can be assessed on the basis of the economic growth it has achieved. The role of entrepreneurship in economic development can best be put as “ an economy is the effect for which entrepreneurship is the cause”. Kerala’s statistics on industrial entrepreneurship displays a very interesting picture. The State’s contribution to nations industrial output is 2.19 per cent, but to that of population is 3.43 per cent. In contrast to the national trend, the informal manufacturing sector in Kerala has recorded a relatively high growth in the post liberalization period. The growth of small scale industrial units and employment in this sector was also promising during this period. However, industrial performance in Kerala during this period was not favourable in terms of output growth. Significant growth in employment generation under industrial sector is not represented by corresponding increase in industrial output. Remarkable growth of fixed capital is recorded in Kerala’s industrial sector, but it has not influenced the output growth during the period. Nominal and real wage rates are low in Kerala since 1980s. Man days lost due to industrial disputes and labour militancy registered a declining tendency. Yet, studies on investment proposals reveal that Kerala is a unattractive destination for both domestic and foreign investors. Thus the major hurdle for the State’s industrial backwardness is not increase in cost of production or labour militancy, but poor quality of entrepreneurship.

In this article an attempt was made to examine the factors that motivated Kerala based entrepreneurs to take up entrepreneurship as a career. The motivational variables of the entrepreneurs were put under study. Primary data for the study was collected from 300 entrepreneurs from small scale and medium scale industrial segments. Direct personal interviews are conducted with the selected respondents with the help of a structured questionnaire. The results are given below :

1. Factors that motivated Kerala based Entrepreneurs : To examine the actors that motivated the Entrepreneurs in the State, ten alternative motivating factors were applied on the respondents. Majority of them have chosen multiple factors for their response. The result is given in table 1. As per the table, 86 per cent of the respondents revealed that their desire to work independently has motivated them to start their own industrial ventures. Eighty two per cent of the respondents were of the view that their creative ability will prosper only in an independent environment and hence preferred to have own business enterprise. Fifty two per cent would like to be self employed, hence they became entrepreneurs. Pressure from with in the family has paved the way for the entrepreneurship of forty per cent of the respondents.

Table 1
Factors that motivated small entrepreneurs to take up entrepreneurship as a career

Sl. No.	Motivating factors	No. of respondents	Percentage
1.	To be independent	258	86
2	To be creative	246	82
3	To be self-employed	156	52
4	To use technical knowledge	70	23
5	To use business experience	32	11
6	To use Govt. support	28	9
7	Success story of others	65	22
8	Profit margin	87	29
9	Family orientation	120	40
10	To join elite circle of business men	47	16
	Total	300	100

( Source : Survey data )
Twenty nine per cent of the respondents became entrepreneurs because they expect good profit margin from the enterprise. Twenty three per cent of the respondents would like to apply their technical knowhow, hence they stated an enterprise of their own.

1. Training status of the entrepreneurs : Small entrepreneurs are usually exposed to two types of training programmes – prior training programmes and on-the job training. It is interesting to note from table 2 that 81 per cent of the entrepreneurs have not undergone any training programme prior to starting their ventures. Nineteen per cent of entrepreneur have undergone training programme before venturing into the business activities. Twenty seven per cent among start up entrepreneurs have undergone prior training programmes. Start up are those which are in existence for less than three years. Among the entrepreneurs who are in active business for more than 4 years but less than 8 years ( growing ), only 27 per cent have undergone training programmes. Fifteen per cent of the entrepreneurs belonging to mature enterprises ( in existence for more than 9 years but less than 15 years.) have under gone training programmes. Eleven per cent of the respondents who are in business for more than 16 years revealed that they obtained training before they start their enterprises.

Table 2
Training status of the respondents

Sl. No.	Growth phase	Had prior training	%	No prior training	%	Total
1	Start up ( less than 3 years )	24	27	64	73	88
2	Growing ( 4 – 8 years)	14	23	48	77	62
3	Mature ( 9 – 15 years )	10	15	58	85	68
4	Reconstruction ( More than 16 years )	9	11	73	89	82
	Total	57	19	243	81	300

( Source : Survey data )

Another important finding of the survey is that , a formal training is not essential for an entrepreneur before stating an enterprise. Eighty two per cent of the respondents are of the opinion that on-job-job training is enough for a successful entrepreneurial career. It may be observed that a entrepreneur lives in a highly competitive world which is always subjected to radical changes happening in a society such as advancement of technology, changes in fashion, preferences, living conditions, political and economic changes and so on. In such situations, an entrepreneur learns and imbibes many things by his own experience and insight. He can not go back to educational institutions to learn and adopt to situations. Instead, he/she acquires new strategies out of his own enthusiasm and innovation skills.

1. Beginning of Entrepreneur’s Motivation : As revealed in table 3, twenty six per cent of the respondents had a strong motivation to be an entrepreneur since their childhood. Seventy four per cent of the entrepreneurs report that their motivation to be an entrepreneur begun just a few years before they decided to start their present venture.

Table 3
Desire to be an entrepreneur

Sl. No.	Growth phase	Since Childhood	%	Past few years	%	Total
1	Start up ( less than 3 years )	19	22	69	78	88
2	Growing ( 4 – 8 years)	15	24	43	76	62
3	Mature ( 9 – 15 years )	19	28	49	72	69
4	Reconstruction ( More than 16 years )	26	32	56	68	82
	Total	79	26	221	74	300

( Source : Survey data )

It could be understood from table 3 that the desire to become an entrepreneur can arise at any time during his/her life. A well planned and well oriented series of entrepreneurship Development programme ( EDP ) will motivate and lure many able and talented people to become entrepreneurs. Hence, it is up to the State Administration to take up ED Prorammes at various levels. We may conclude“Entrepreneurs are made not born”.

 

Kathakali

I first came to India by coincidence. In 2004, a volunteer workcamp in ecotourism I had subscribed to for the Andaman Islands had just been cancelled. I therefore visited Tamil Nadu and one week was left when I suddenly felt like getting a glimpse of Kerala. I didn’t have much information nor much idea about it, but I took a night train to Kochi. I felt so good there as the atmosphere was so pleasant and quiet, people friendly and sights attractive.

In the evening I saw a poster about daily Kathakali programs and I thought that it was a good idea to get busy in the evening as the evenings are usually boring for an individual traveler in India.

The Kathakali program left me thunderstruck. It was an extract of Duryodhana Vadham (1), from Mahabharatha (2). The steps seemed so familiar to me though so away from all our western art forms. The make-up left me esthetically overwhelmed, the facial expressions were mesmerizing. The arrival of Dussasana (1) on stage with his red rotating eyes was so scary that I nearly thought about leaving the place, but the presence of Krishna (2) comforting Draupadi (1) gave me the experience of a glimpse of Divine Love, ever compassionate and full of Bliss and Peace. The day after I looked into Kathakali books and took the resolution to find classes back to France.

Back to Paris, I was lucky enough to find Karuna, a teacher from the famous art school of Kerala Kalamandalam (3). I learnt fast as if Kathakali was in my blood. I went back to Kerala the same year and took followed some training in Trivandrum and Kerala Kalamandalam for 3 weeks.

In 2007, I decided to get more intensive course and learn proper stories. I was warmly welcomed at Samskrithy School (4), a small school which provides private classes with great artists like Fact Mohanan, who can teach exactly what one needs and looks for. The training was physically hard, I followed daily Kalaripayat (5) classes, as the body training of Kathakali comes from Kalaripayat, and the body needs so much preparation in order to bear the heavy costumes and vigorous steps on stage. Kathakali classes were also daily of course. To learn a padam (role of a character in a piece of play) I had to learn the poem in a mix of Malayalam and Sanskrit, the mudras (6), the rythms and steps. This is for the technical part. But then comes the artistic interpretation of the actor, feeling all emotions of the character, the story, the situation with a deep understanding of the local culture and the historical and mythological context. Those emotions have to be conveyed through facial expressions and through the eyes, each muscles of the face has to be trained daily with specific exercises. The last level of the art is the spiritual part. When it is daily present in our life, it leads us to find the right movement, expression and emotion. And the art, when we search how to find the right movement, also opens a new space for spiritual development.

During my stay in the school I was going several times per week to Kathakali programs in temples. So I often had the opportunity to see beautiful temple festivals with elephant processions, cultural programs, and every time I had the feeling that I was in the heart of Kerala. I could also perform on stage for the first time in my life, and then several times, living deeply what is the long process of make-up and dress-up, the time we need to get into a character, and the challenge of bearing the heavy and hot costume for a long time. I had that strange feeling of, as a non-Hindu, playing Hindu stories and characters on stage in front of local temple devotees. But though Kathakali is complex and codified, its essence is made of a universal language that one can understand beyond one’s culture and references. More than a total art, it is a formidable tool for self-development and devotion. Let’s hope that this precious knowledge will not run away from India.

(1) Duryodhana Vadham, a famous Kathakali play which depicts the revenge of Bhima, one of the Pandava princes, who kills Dussasana and Duryodhana, the Kaurava brothers, Bhima’s enemies, because they had humiliated his wife Draupadi.

(2) Mahabharatha, the great Indian epics, which relates mostly the story of the Pandava and Kaurava, and contains the Bhagavad Gita, when Krishna, incarnation of Vishnu, reveals his divine nature to Arjuna.

(3) Kerala Kalamandalam, the most famous institution for performing arts in Kerala, located near Trichur.

(4) Samskrithy School, a private school for performing arts where foreign students can get art classes and stay with local family, located at Puthencavu village, near Chengannur.

(5) Kalaripayat, the martial art of Kerala, the body training and massages are also used in Kathakali.

(6) Mudras, stylized hand gestures used for each word. There are 24 basic mudras in Kathakali with numerous combinations to form over 400 mudras. 

Author :- Aruna.

[Click on the photos below to enlarge]

	Aruna in kathakali costume
	Aruna in partial kathakali makeup.