Lets Forget all the Tears of 2012 & Have great full 2013 Wish you all Hapy new year...

Osama Bin Laden didn't encrypt his computer files - not such a mastermind then..

by Graham Cluley on May 3, 2012 | Comments (19)

FILED UNDER: Data loss, Featured, Law & order, Privacy

Some of the documents seized during the raid on Osama Bin Laden's hideout in Pakistan last year have been made public for the first time.

As CNN reports, a small number of the 6000 documents seized have been made available on the Combating Terrorism Center at West Pointwebsite.

The 17 electronic documents, which were found on USB sticks, memory cards and computer hard drives after US Navy Seals killed the terrorist chief in the May 2011 raid, are being released in their original Arabic alongside English translations.

A short report provides an overview of the material.

The final document is dated just one week before the raid on Bin Laden's Abbottabad compound which resulted in his death, and discussed the "Arab Spring".

So, why are we writing about this on Naked Security?

Well, because it appears that none of the files were encrypted.

If they had been securely encrypted, and the passwords were secured, the US authorities probably wouldn't have been able to read them.

Because of Al Qaeda's sloppy attitude in regard to data security - a problem that reached the highest levels of the terror organisation it appears - internal communications and potentially valuable intelligence are now in the hands of America.

Something we can all probably be pleased about.

Remember folks - whether you are a business, an individual or a terrorist,encryption is one of the tools you should probably be using to keep better control over who gains access to your confidential data.

It shouldn't take a mastermind to realise that that's just common sense.

(Not that many will be shedding a tear about Osama Bin Laden's lax attitude to securing his data, I suspect. Lets hope other terrorists follow his lead..)

Want to see who has viewed your Facebook profile? Take care..

I'm increasingly being asked by folks on Facebook if it's possible to tell who has been viewing their Facebook profile. A number have been attracted to webpages and Facebook applications that claim to be able to give you a secret insight into who is spying on your profile.

Well, if you're one of those people who are curious about who might be watching you online, take care.

Right now we're seeing a significant number of Facebook users posting messages such as:

OMG OMG OMG... I can't believe this actually works! Now you really can see who views your profile!!! WOAH

and

See who views your Facebook profile in real-time!!!

However, like the "Justin Bieber cell phone number" scam and the "This mother went to jail for taking this pic of her son!" scam, the links pointed to in your friends' status updates are not to be trusted.

If you make the mistake of clicking on the link to one of these pages offering to tell you who is viewing your Facebook profile, you will find that the people behind the "services" want you to do a few things first.

For instance, they'll ask you to "Like" their pages (which means you are spreading the link to friends in your social network), and they will ask you to advertise their site by posting an "OMG" message (with a link) to at least five different places on Facebook.

After all that hard work you would hope that they would give you access to the powerful Profile Spy app wouldn't you? But I'm afraid your luck is out.

They'll next ask you to hand over your personal information by taking numerous surveys - before ultimately trying to trick you into handing over your cellphone number which they'll sign up to an expensive premium rate service.

Remember, this scam doesn't work as the result of clickjacking, or a vulnerability on Facebook. The scammers are achieving their ends because of human gullibility - pure and simple. If people considered what they were doing and thought twice about the possible consequences then we would see nothing like as many of these attacks occurring, and our news feeds on Facebook would see less spam.

Do your bit for the public good and share this page on Facebook to warn your online friends about scams like this. Press the button at the side to share this article if you're a Facebook user.

Interestingly, the pages that this particular scam points you to aren't on Facebook, but still display a fake Facebook header at the top. You will notice if you visit them that although the top menu options are there, they cannot be clicked on - which clearly makes the pages look even more suspect.

Ultimately you have to have your wits about you to avoid scams like this. If you or your friends keep falling for these sort of confidence tricks, or want to learn more about security threats,

Seeing ads on Wikipedia? You may have malware

Wikipedia has issued a warning to its many millions of daily visitors that if they are seeing commercial adverts on its webpages, that it may be an indication of a malware infection on the user's computer.

Criminals aren't shy of earning affiliate cash by injecting unwanted adverts into webpages or redirecting users to sites or search results that innocent users didn't mean to visit.

Despite its colossal popularity, Wikipedia has always resisted putting ads on its pages. The site prefers to ask the public for donations and runs fund-raising campaigns from time-to-time.

As Wikipedia explains in its official blog:

We never run ads on Wikipedia. Wikipedia is funded by more than a million donors, who give an average donation of less than 30 dollars. We run fundraising appeals, usually at the end of the year. If you're seeing advertisements for a for-profit industry (see screenshot for an example) or anything but our fundraiser, then your web browser has likely been infected with malware.

So, if you begin to see adverts in unexpected places on the net, check your browser's plugins and disable any add-ons and browser extensions that may be causing the problem.

In addition, run an up-to-date anti-virus to make sure that whatever might have introduced the unwanted ads isn't also up to other malicious behaviour behind the scenes

NoTTY gAlZz

Maruti 800: Exhibited at kasaragod muncipal stadium

MECA'TLOn

World Environment Day

An umbrella over earth (Bhoomikkoru- kuda) and Thimmakka

Today (5th June 2010) will be no more than just a day that will fall after 4th; because it is ‘The World Environment Day’. The last chance we have got to hear the cry of our mother earth. In accordance with the global celebrations; here in Kerala; Malayala Manorama -the leading daily and Kerala Forest Department have jointly decided to launch a scheme named ‘Bhoomikkoru kuda’ (an umbrella over earth). Throughout the state; the slogan ‘One man to plant one tree’ will be heard calling one person to plant and nurture one tree; there by holding millions of umbrellas over the parched land. It is hoped that the wide influence of leading publisher joining hands with resourceful Kerala Forest Department may garner public participation paving way for efficient execution of the project.

Social Forestry

About 15 years back the Forest Department of Kerala launched a scheme by name ‘Social Forestry’ and spent millions; all ended up as mere farce. Those planted saplings were non-indigenous varieties of trees like eucalyptus, acacia etc which turned out to be a bigger problem. On the congested roadsides of Kerala these trees still stand as nightmares. Those tall and weak rooted eucalyptus trees go on falling on electric lines and nearby building at the blow of a breeze creating blackouts and loss of lives. People living nearby spent sleepless nights thinking which tree may fall on which ones roof-top. The acacia trees their profuse allergic pollens create allergies and asthma to poor residents! It is hoped even at this time they may avoid past blunders.

Just for attaining target

It seems strange what motivated the officials to select those useless trees for planting in this state; as it was government money on their disposal; they would have thought it fit to experiment anything. If a tree does not give cool shade, fodder to animals, or bear fruits or good timber; it is not worth to be planted; not to talk about if they are causing diseases and havocs! That sapling planted under and electric line was sure to create problems when it grows; here for lack of space –Kerala being a crowded state- officials were forced to achieve targets by planting whatever saplings supplied at wherever there was space; whether it was below an electric line did not matter!

A name fast forgotten

Thimmakka Chikkaiyah was an ordinary woman – an illiterate quarry worker and her husband (Bikkalu Chikkaiyah); a cattle herder; the couple had no children as their own. The old lady decided to plant banyan trees on the three km barren roadsides along the Kudur – Hulikal State Highway that passed nearby their hut. That poor couple had no resources like Kerala Forest Department but had a farsightedness; the Forest officials lacked. After years of dedicated efforts they planted 400 saplings of banyan trees; of which three hundred grew up and the rest fell to stray cattle and marauders. This happened despite all the protection they offered to the saplings like raising fence around them. They lugged water from wells located kilometers away on all summer-days to ensure the plants’ survival.

A proud mother

All these happened 60 long years back; at present Timmakka is a proud mother of surviving 284 huge banyan trees standing proudly along the sides of Kudur – Hulikal National highway giving rich shade to the passers by. Her husband Bikkalu Chikkaiyah (affectionately called Chikkanna) had died years back and she lives alone in her humble hut in a small plot of land awarded by the Government of Karnataka. After her selfless efforts were brought to the notice of the outside world; many awards and accolades came in search of the poor woman - who became famous in synonym ‘Saalumarada Thimmakka’ meaning Thimmakka of rows of trees. She in her old age is still invited for many eco -programs held in nearby places and still active in construction of tanks for rainwater harvesting. Media persons often talk about how much thousands these trees are worth now but for Thimmakka they are not commodities to be valued; these being her own siblings.

She too has a dream

Thimmakka standing proudly in front of the trees she planted

She cherishes a dream of constructing a hospital in her native village; as the nearest hospital is eight km away many of her neighbors die on way to hospital. “If you get a rebirth what life you wished to be reborn” is a common question asked to her by the visitors especially media persons; to which she has a simple and straightforward answer; “I wish to be born as a banyan tree”; because all her surviving 284 children are banyan trees! (Hindus believe in rebirths and as per books the soul is eternal and that is allowed to take many physical lives as old clothes are discarded for new; one person may get a series of rebirths as animals, plants or any living form)

Tail-piece

In many of the literatures that appear in the media encouraging people to plant trees, in connection with The World Environment Day, benefits of trees of environment etc no where any mention of this grand old Indian lady seems to have appeared; hence the author dedicates this article to that grand old Thimmakka and her late husband Chikkanna; who planted those saplings, built fence around them and lugged bucket full of water for ensuring the survival of those blessed trees; which act as an abode for many birds and small animals which build nest on them and feed on its Fruits. Banyan trees bear abundant small fruits; being not consumed by human beings; are left for birds, ants and squirrels etc to eat. These trees are considered sacred by Hindus for many reasons; one of them may be that its fruits are for the animal life.

Hero Worship

Article by:- Nimmy Tiju, Lecturer, Dept of English, St Alberts College, Ernakulam.

Hero worship is a kind of mania spread among modern people. It is a kind of blind imitation without any base. They imitate others without thinking whether it is good or bad. People worship persons in cricket, film, models and men of success in various fields.

If a person wins fifty runs in a cricket match its merit goes to him. He has its benefit. People who are watching the game would not gain anything. The spectators are clamouring and shrieking as if they got same profit. It is a pity to think that people are worshipping them as their Gods.

Heroes do not have any extraordinary quality. He is just an ordinary man. He came to the zenith of his success through his hardwork. To some, film stars are Gods. They are trying to imitate them in every deed and in words. One thing we have to realize is that film stars are mere puppets in the hands of directors and producers.

We give more importance to emotion than to reason. We fail to realize who should be our real heroes. It is our parents who make us what we are. No film stars, no models would help us in our predicaments. Parents are the physical incarnation of God. Models, filmstars, cricket players etc are sincere to their job. It is this quality which helped them to attain their goal.

We fail to realize the sacrificing mentality of people working in the army. They are giving their lives for the sake of us. If a war breaks out it is they who will have to face the toils and hardshipsof war inorder to protect our nation. No politicians, no cricket players will sacrifice their life for our sake. People in the Army and Navy are the men who should win our appreciation. We give more importance to peripheral glitterings. Even governments would not show any mercy to them or to their family. Works of God. No man can determine the fate of his fellow being.

It is a pity, modern man is making a new God. He could not understand that this fellow being is also a man having the same limitations and qualities of a man. Now he wants a duplicate God inorder to satisfy his hunger to find a God. If he fails in his search he becomes an atheist.

Man tries to state that he is an incarnation of God. And he forces others to adore him. What a pity to think, now man fails to understand who should be adored and who should not be. Now he is losing his rational power.

Mycorrhizae

Mycorrhizae denotes the symbiotic association between a fungus and the root of the plant. In symbiotic associations both the partners are benefitted. The fungus that enters in this symbiotic association is called mycorrhizal fungus. This is also known as ‘fungus root’.

It was Frank the German Botanist who discovered it in 1885. Usually the fungus associates with the roots of higher plants and thus mycorrhizal association plays a significant role for the proper absorption of minerals by the root systemand this markedly influences the general growth of higher plants.

On the basis of morphology and anatomy, mycorrhizae are classified into ectomycorrhizae, endomycorrhizae and ectendomycorrhizae. In ectomycorrhizae, the absorbing roots are almost completely enveloped by a mantle of very compact hyphae by the fungus. From this external mantle certain hyphae enter the cortex of roots and confine to the intercellular spaces of the cortical cells. The stelar portion and also the meristem at the apex are not inhabited by the fungus within the cortex of the root, the intercellular hyphae ramily extensively in the form of the reticulum to which the name ‘Harting-net’ is given. Plants like pines, cedrus, quercus, fagus etc develop ectomycorrhizae. The common fungal partners include cortinarius, amanita, rhizopogon, scleroderma etc. The fungal partners usually belong to basidiomycetes and ascomycetes.

In endomycorrhizae, the mycorrhizae is confined to the cells of the root system, causing internal infections of the cortex of root and the rhizomes of plant. The fungus is confined intracellularly. The most important role of the fungus of endomycorrhizae  is the disintegration of soil particles and the absorption and transport of these released particles into the soil. The formation of endomycorrhizae do  not alter the  morphology of the root system. Since the fungus is confined in the root cells and are not grown externally root hairs are normally formed on the surface of the roots. This is commonly seen in orchids, conifers like Tuniperus, sequoia etc.The endomycorrhizae are of 2 types depending on the nature of fungus. In the first case the fungus has separate mycelium and in the second the hyphae consist of aseptate type. The mycorrhizae formed of aseptate fungi are popularly called VAM [vesicular-arbuscular nycorrhizae]. The hyphae of this fungus branch dichotomously and produce vesicles called haustoria. These vesicles are present with in the host cells called artuscules. This kind of association is very common in bryophytes, gymnosperms and pteridophytes.

In ectendomycorrhizae, both the characters of ecto and endomycorrhizae are seen. Since these relationships are symbiotic, both the partners are equally benefitted. The root produces sugars, aminoacids etc which can be shared by the fungus. The fungus absorbs nutrients for the plants from the soil.

It is found that mostly woodt plants develop mycorrhizae for better absorption of minerals by them. The proper growth of many woody plants especially of forest trees is significantly related to mycorrhizae owing to its great capacity to absorb minerals and supply them to the roots of plants. It is seen that the seedlings of many forest trees fail to establish their growth on grasslands even if they are grown in situations of abundant supply of nutrients. If some forest soil containing the correct fungal partners is mixed with the soil around the seedlings, they are found to restore normal growth. This proves that many of the forest trees establish in the soil with the help of their fungal partner.

Also in several woody plants the mycorrhizae is not a must but it is a helping agent for better and sufficient absorption of mineral elementsfrom nutrient deficient soils. This is because several plants grow normally if they are well supplied with surplus amount of minerals especially nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium etc. even if the roots donot associate with the fungus and form mycorrhizae. But these plants show only very poor growth when mineral quantity of the soil is very low. In this situation mycorrhizae plays a significant role.

Thus it is seen that the mycorrhizae if present in root of higher plants, can increase the absorptive capacity of the root system. It is also found that fungus cannot be multiplied in mass and hence its application directly to field crops becomes very difficult. Hence the fungul propagules are applied to those plants which can be first planted in nurssery and later they are transplanted.

Article by Anju Antony, St Teresas College, Cochin.

Financial Exclusion to Financial Inclusion

Dr. Rajagopala Nair, Dept. of Commerce, St. Albert’s College, Ernakulam                                                  

Introduction                                                                                                                                             

Access to finance, especially by the poor and vulnerable groups, is an essential requisite for employment, economic growth, poverty alleviation and social upliftment. Further, financial inclusion will enable the poor and the rustics of our country to open a bank account to save and invest, to borrow and to repay, to insure and to take part in the credit. This will enable them to break the chain of poverty. Till 1960s, Indian banks were more conservative and inward looking, concerned with their profits. Banking services were greatly used by a segment of the people. Class banking was prevalent during those days. Majority of the banks were private commercial banks, local oriented and primarily serving the business community. They had limited range of activities. Competition did not exist during those days. They basically concentrated on selling their loans to those who are financially sound and are capable of providing security for their borrowings. The banks tend to positively appropriate their liabilities for keeping their funds safe and give modest interest on deposits. However, after the Nationalization of 14 major commercial banks in 1969, Indian banks woke from their isolation, and evaluated the rapidly changing environment. The slogan during the Bank Nationalization was ‘transformation from class banking to mass banking’. The banking industry in India has undergone drastic changes during the last two decades. Reforms since the early nineties, has paved the way for the  economic transformation of the  country.

Rural Banking Scenario

In India more than 70 per cent of households live in rural areas. Therefore, existence of rural banks assumes a significant importance. A rural bank is one whch serves a population of less than 10,000. Since Nationalisation, the lending to the select elite in the urban areas gave way to lending to the rural masses. The policy makers recognized the fact that the potential of rural India should not be under estimated. The banks have to play a dual role in rural areas to institutionalize the rural savings for developmental activities as a part of commercial banking. Then the help in the social upliftment of the poor as a part of social banking. As at the end of March 1992, there were 60,528 branches of commercial banks ( including RRBs ) in the country, of which 35,275 ( 58.3 per cent ) were in rural areas as against 22.3 per cent at the time of bank nationalization. In spite of huge branch expansion in rural areas and developmental policies of the Government it is to be noted that the commercial banks have not made systematic efforts to squeeze the rural business. Often it is felt that the commercial banks have started their branches in rural areas not to satisfy the rural asses but to satisfy the Govt. Inadequate management and marketing competence in individual banks is the major cause for the non-viability of rural banks. Analysis of the available statistics on rural banks reveals that the rural deposits in the country shows a compound growth rate of 27.29 per cent during the 39 years period from 1969 to 2008. It is worth noting that the number of rural branches will form 45 per cent of the total  bank branches in the country. The compound growth rate of rural credit of the country is 30.57 per cent during the 39 years from 1969 to 2008. Hardships in obtaining loans from the banks has paved the way for the growth of private money lenders in rural areas especially in States like Kerala.

Financial Exclusion:

 According to K.C.Chakrabarty “Financial Exclusion is the lack of access by certain consumers to appropriate, low cost, fair and safe financial products and services from main stream providers.” There are three types of exclusions : (a) people who do not have any accss to a regulated financial system; (b) people who have limited access to banks and other financial services; and (3) individuals who have inappropriate products. Mostly low income, unemployed and illiterate people, women and disabled are excluded from the formal financial services. Lack of Banking habits, high transaction cost, lack of banking knowledge and insufficiency of knowledge on banking products prevents the unbanked people from knocking the door steps of banks. Financial exclusion means : No Savings, No Insurance, No access to money advice, No affordable credit, No Bank account and No assets. There are people who desire the use of financial services, but are denied access to the same. In countries with a large rural population like India, Financial Exclusion has a geographic dimension as well. Inaccessibility, distance and lack of proper infrastructure hinder financial inclusion. Going by the available data on the number of savings bank accounts and even assuming that one person has only one account, on an all India basis less than 60 per cent of adult population in the country have bank accounts. To compound matters, there are regional disparities among different regions of the country in this respect. In the rural parts of the country, where the farming community is living, the farm house holds having bank accounts is showing a miserable picture. The region-wise data regarding the farm house holds not having access to formal credit is given in the table. The unbanked population is higher in the North Eastern and Eastern Regions as compared to other regions. Further the extent of credit inclusion is even lower at 14 per cent of adult population. The financially excluded sections largely comprise marginal farmers, landless labourers, self employed and unorganized sector enterprises, ethnic minorities, socially excluded groups, senior citizens and women. While there are pockets of large excluded population in all parts of the country, the North-East, Eastern and Central region contain most of the financially excluded population.

Table showing the percentage of farm house holds not having access to formal credit

Region	Percentage to total farm households
Northern	74.95
North-Eastern	95.91
Eastern	81.26
Central	77.59
Western	56.02
Southern	57.25
Union Territories	89.86

The Farm households not accessing credit from formal sources as proportion to total farm households is especially high at 95.91 %, 81.26% and 77.59% in the North-Eastern, Eastern and Central Regions. The Southern and Western Regions, on the other hand, exhibits relatively better level of access to forma/non-formal sources when comparing with the All India level of 72.7%. This is mainly on account of spread of banking habits and a more robust infrastructure.

Social Exclusion:

Another facet of exclusion which needs to be addressed is ‘Social Exclusion’ – which is an extreme consequence of what happens when people do not get a fair deal throughout their lives, often because of disadvantages they face at birth, and this can be transmitted from one generation to the next. Social exclusion is about more than income poverty. It is a short and term for what can happen when people or areas have a combination of problems such as unemployment, discrimination, poor skills low incomes and poor housing. Their problems are linked and mutually reinforcing.

Financial Inclusion:

Providing various financial services like, loans, insurance, payments, remittances and financial advisory services to the downtrodden who have no access to the formal financial structure of the country is the basic objective of Financial Inclusion. An open and efficient society is always characterized by the unrestrained access to public goods and services. As banking services are viewed as public goods, availability of banking and payment services to the entire population without discrimination of any type is called Financial Inclusion. Unrestrained access to public goods and services is the sine qua non of an open and efficient society.

Financial Inclusion is a critical component of the inclusive growth envisaged for the overall development of the economy. The spread of banking facilities has been uneven in the country, throwing up challenges for achieving financial inclusion. Even after Nationalisation of commercial banks in 1969 and in 1980, a good proportion of households, specially rural, is still outside the coverage of the formal banking system. Often it is asked, why are so many bankable people of rural India are unbanked? An inclusive financial sector would provide access to credit for all ‘bankable’ people and firms, to insurance for all insurable people and firms and to savings and payments services for everyone.

The working definition of Financial Inclusion - “Financial Inclusion may be defined as the process of ensuring access to financial services and timely and adequate credit where needed by vulnerable groups such as weaker sections and low income groups at an affordable cost.”

Initiates of RBI for Financial Inclusion:

In the Annual Policy Statement of the RBI ( 2005-06), policies were made to encourage banks to provide extensive banking services to the unbanked mass of the country. The nature, scope and cost of services would be monitored to assess whether there is any denial, implicit or explicit, of basic banking services to the common person. Banks are being urged to review their existing practices to align them with the objective of financial inclusion.

A study on the Income and Savings of Rural Bank customers of Kerala :

The author has conducted a Correlation Analysis for measuring the intensity or magnitude of linear relationship between income and savings of rural bank customers in the State of Kerala. This Analysis was conducted on the Primary Data collected from 3000 rural bank customers who have been selected as a part of his project study on “Poverty Alleviation Programme in Kerala”. The study reveals that the average income of a rural bank customer in the State is Rs.2544 per month and average saving is Rs.432 per month. Standard deviation of income is Rs.2236.98 per month and standard deviation of savings is Rs.930.26 per month. Coefficient of correlation is 0.8286. There is a high degree of correlation between the income and savings of rural bank customers in the State. It is also revealed in the study that the the saving capacity of the higher income group is more than that of lower income group. An increase in income will tend to have an increase in savings.

Coefficient of Determination:

 This gives the percentage variation I the dependent variable that is accounted for by the independent variable. The above analysis reveals a coefficient of determination of 0.7441. It means, as the increases, savings will also increase. About 74 per cent of the increase in the savings is purely due to the increase in the income of rural bank customers. Approximately 26 per cent of the increase in savings is not due to the increase in income but due some other qualitative factors.

Regression Analysis:

              Regression line of saving ( y ) on income ( x ) is given by                               

Y = 0.3587x-481

This equation can be used for the prediction of saving for a specified income. The application of this equation will be clear from the following illustrations:             

Illustration1:

              When x is 0, ie, when there is no income

              Y = -48.1 ie. there will be a debt of Rs.481

Illustration 2 :

              When savings ( y ) is 0, that is when 0.3587x – 481 < 0

              ie. 0.3587x < 481

              ie. when x ≤1340 ( approximately )

It implies that, when the monthly income is below Rs.1340, the savings will be negative. A minimum monthly income of Rs.1340 is essential to avoid debt by a rural bank customer.

Illustration 3 :

When income is Rs.5000

y = 0.3587x5000 – 481

y = 1312.5

Illustration 4 :

When income is Rs.10,000

y = 0.3587x10000 – 481

y = 3106

On an average, rural customers with a monthly income of Rs.5000 and Rs.10,000 may save Rs.1313 and Rs.3106 per month respectively. An analysis of this nature will help the authorities and the policy makers to identify the bankable people and they may be brought to the main stream banking and credit system of the country.

Neurotransmitters Functional Balance in Health and Disease Management

By:- Dr. C. S. Paulose
Molecular Neurobiology and Cell Biology Unit, Centre for Neuroscience, Head, Department of Biotechnology, Cochin University of Science and Technology, Cochin 682 022, Kerala, India. e-mail: cspaulose@cusat.ac.in

Abstract

The recent developments in neurobiology have rendered new prominence and potential to study about the structure and function of brain and related disorders. Human behaviour is the net result of neural control of the communication between brain cells. Neurotransmitters are chemicals that are used to relay, amplify and modulate electrical signals between neurons and/or another cell. It mediates rapid intercellular communication through the nervous system by interacting with cell surface receptors. These receptor subtypes often trigger second messenger signaling pathways that regulate the activity of ion channels. The functional balance of different neurotransmitters such as Acetylcholine (Ach), Dopamine (DA), Serotonin (5-HT), Norepinephrine (NE), Epinephrine (EPI), Glutamate and Gamma amino butyric acid (GABA) regulates the growth, division and other vital functions of a normal cell / organism. Any change in neurotransmitters’ functional balance will result in the failure of cell function and lead to the occurrence of diseases. Abnormalities in the production or functioning of neurotransmitters have been implicated in a number of neurological disorders like Schizophrenia, Alzheimer’s, Epilepsy, Depression and Parkinson’s disease. Changes in central and peripheral neuronal signaling system is also noted in diabetes, hypoglycaemia, hypoxia, cancer, cell proliferation, alcoholism and aging. Elucidation of neurotransmitters receptor interaction pathways and gene expression regulation by second messengers and transcriptional factors in health and disease conditions can lead to new small molecules for development of therapeutic agents to improve neurological disease conditions. Increased awareness of the global effects of neurological disorders should help health care planners and the neurological community set appropriate priorities in research, prevention and management of these diseases.

Key Words: Neurotransmitters, neurotransmission, neurological disorders, disease management.

Introduction

Neurons are the basic cell of the brain and nervous system. Neurons communicate to each other by releasing neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters are the chemicals which account for the transmission of signals from one neuron to the next across synapses. It transmits information within the brain and from the brain to all the parts of the body. Neurotransmitters exert their effect by binding to specific receptors on the neuronal postsynaptic membrane. The activity of a neuron depends on the balance between the number of excitatory and inhibitory processes affecting it, either processes occurring individually or simultaneously. The consequences of the neurotransmitter receptor function can influence the regulation of metabolic manifestations in hypothyroidism, hypertension, diabetes and cell proliferation directly by central nervous system function or through the hypothalamic-pituitary-end organ axis. Hormones such as insulin, glucagon, thyroxine, tri- iodothyronine, glucocorticoids function as growth regulators. The functional difference of neurotransmitters and hormones through receptor subtypes can lead to differential gene expression. The functional balance of different neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine (Ach), dopamine (DA), serotonin (5-HT), norepinephrine (NE), epinephrine (EPI), glutamate and gamma amino butyric acid (GABA) and various hormones regulates the growth, division and other vital functions of a normal cell / organism.

Most neurological and psychiatric disorders involve selective or preferential impairments of neurotransmitter systems. Therefore, studies of functional neurotransmitter pathophysiology in human brain are of unique importance in view of the development of effective, mechanism-based, therapeutic modalities. The use of neurosurgically removed fresh animal tissue samples in which receptors, transporters, ion channels and enzymes essentially retain their natural environment, represents a unique experimental approach to enlarge our understanding of human brain processes. Using this experimental approach, many human brain functional proteins, in particular neurotransmitter receptors have been characterized in terms of localization, function and pharmacological properties.

Parkinson's disease, a neurological disorder involves the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the nigrostriatal tract, which projects from the substantia nigra pars compacta in the midbrain to the striatum and is essential for the control of movement. The disease leads to tremor, rigidity and hyperkinesias. Reports show a vulnerability of parkin gene to modification by dopamine, the principal neurotransmitter lost in Parkinson disease, suggesting a mechanism for the progressive loss of parkin function in dopaminergic neurons during aging and sporadic Parkinson disease. Recent studies from our laboratory have shown that the alterations in dopamine receptor subtypes gene expression during Parkinson’s disease were reversed by serotonin and gamma aminobutyric acid supplementation (Nandhu et al., 2009).

Epilepsy is syndrome of episodic brain dysfunction characterized by recurrent unpredictable spontaneous seizures. Temporal-lobe epilepsy is characterized by a loss of glutamate-stimulated GABA release that is secondary to a reduction in the number of GABA transporters (Matthew et al., 2002). Electrophysiological studies of human temporal-lobe epilepsy suggest that a loss of hippocampal GABA-mediated inhibition may underlie the neuronal hyperexcitability (Knowles, 1992). Glutamate or analogue excitatory amino acids are the principal excitatory neurotransmitters in the mammalian CNS, which is also involved in this disease. In the hippocampus, two different types of glutamate receptors, the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) and α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole-4-propionic acid (AMPA) receptors, each linked to different classes of ion channels are coactivated on the release of glutamate from presynaptic terminals (Bekkers & Stevens, 1989). Pilocarpine treatment which is characterized by generalized convulsive status epilepticus (SE) in rodents well represents the characteristic neuropathological findings in the hippocampus of TLE patients (Paulose et al., 2006; Reas et al., 2007). Baccopa monnieri (Brahmi) is recommended in formulations for the management of a range of mental conditions including anxiety, poor cognition, lack of concentration, and epilepsy. Anti-epileptic property of the leaf extracts of Bacopa monnieri showed their regulatory role through the muscarinic, glutamate and serotonin receptor subtypes (Paulose et al., 2006; Reas et al., 2007; Amee et al., 2009)

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an irreversible, progressive disorder in which brain cells (neurons) deteriorate, resulting in the loss of cognitive functions, primarily memory, judgment and reasoning, movement coordination, and pattern recognition. In advanced stages of the disease, all memory and mental functioning may be lost. It is the most common cause of dementia.

Patients also frequently have noncognitive symptoms, such as anxiety, depression, apathy, and psychosis that impair daily living. The condition predominantly affects the cerebral cortex and hippocampus, which lose mass and shrink (atrophy) as the disease advances. Mudher & Lovestone, (2002) reported neuronal loss or atrophy, mainly in the temporoparietal cortex along with an inflammatory response to the deposition of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. The loss of memory is related to the loss of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) from both cholinergic and noncholinergic neurons of the diseased brain. However, AChE activity is increased around amyloid plaques. This increase in AChE is of significance for therapeutic strategies using AChE inhibitors. With no cure it sight for Alzheimer's disease, efforts are undertaken to lessen the symptoms once it is diagnosed. Glycosylation of AChE may be a useful diagnostic marker for AD (Sáez-Valero et al., 1999). There are medications that can lessen agitation, anxiety, unpredictable behavior, improve sleeping patterns, and treat depression. Evidences from our laboratory showed that maintenance of neurotransmitter and receptor subtypes balance can reduce and postpone the occurrence of neurological diseases (Paulose et al., 1998).

Apart from the central nervous system, neurotransmitters also play an important role in diseases associated with the peripheral system. Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic disorder associated with insulin deficiency, which affects the carbohydrate metabolism linked with various central and peripheral complications. The pancreatic islets are innervated by parasympathetic, sympathetic and sensory nerves. Several neurotransmitters are stored within the terminals of these nerves. The central nervous system through parasympathetic and sympathetic pathways regulates insulin secretion from pancreatic islets and maintains glucose homeostasis. An increased turnover of DA to norepinephrine has been reported in the pancreatic islets, which could damage the stimulatory effect of DA (Morgan & Montagu, 1985). NE, a stress hormone at higher concentration not only inhibited the DA uptake but also its stimulatory effect on insulin secretion in the pancreatic islets (Eswar et al., 2006). Medicinal plants are a major source for drug discovery in spite of the great development of synthetic molecules. Consequently, the uses of traditional medicinal plants extract in the treatment of various diseases have been flourished. Aegle marmelose and Costus pictus are known herbal medicine for the management of diabetes mellitus (Gireesh et al., 2008a; 2008b).

Neurons of the central nervous system are critically dependent upon a continuous supply of glucose and oxygen. The mammalian brain is exquisitely sensitive to reduction in the supply of glucose (Hypoglycemia) and oxygen (Hypoxia). Insulin regulates blood glucose levels by slowing the release of glucose by the liver and stimulating its entry into other cells. Hypoglycemia remains as the major obstacle to achieving the established benefits of intensive insulin therapy. Repeated episodes of low blood sugar causes neuronal death in brain causing disorientation and confusion, eventually progressing to seizures, partial paralysis or loss of consciousness. An increased number of glutamate receptors and the increased glutamate production will lead to glutamate excitotoxicity and neuronal degeneration which has an impact on the cognitive and memory function (Joseph et al., 2007; 2008). An alteration in dopamine D2 receptors in hippocampus was also observed from the recent studies from our laboratory (Remya et al., 2009).

Hypoxia generally refers to a lack of oxygen in any part of the body. In a neurological context, it refers to a reduction of oxygen to the brain despite adequate amounts of blood. A failure to deliver oxygen and glucose to the brain causes a cascade of abnormal events. In neuronal cells, responses to a decrease in oxygen availability or hypoxia include both facilitation and inhibition of neurotransmitter release. During experimental conditions, hypoxic rats show a change in brain adrenergic and glutaminergic receptor function resulting in abnormal behavioural pattern. Immediate glucose administration prior to oxygen supplementation was found to reduce the adverse effects of hypoxia at the molecular level (Finla et al., 2008). The oxygen availability to the infant should be made with out delay during the change over from umbilical cord to the atmospheric air. The more delay occurring will lead to neuronal death which will affect the intellectual capacity of the individual at later stages. The network usually formed in the adult is approximately 3.2 million kilometers for all the functions. If there is neuronal death the functional network will be less.

Neurotransmitter receptors are usually restricted to neuronal cells, but the signalling pathways activated by these receptors are widely distributed in both neural and non-neural cells. The role of the neurotransmitters- NE, 5-HT and their receptors using partial hepatectomised rat model has been studied in vivo for controlled cell proliferation. It is also suggested that an intact nervous system is an important component of the regulatory system for liver regeneration either through direct innervations of the liver or through indirect modulation of DNA synthesis resulting in cell proliferation. Studies from our lab have shown that serotonin can act as a potent hepatocyte co-mitogen and induce DNA synthesis in primary cultures of rat hepatocytes, which is mediated through the serotonin S2 receptors (Sudha & Paulose, 1998). GABA acts as an inhibitory signal through GABAA receptor while it acts as a co-mitogen through GABAB receptors during in vitro hepatocyte proliferation (Biju et al., 2001a; 2001b). Studies from our laboratory have shown that neurotransmitters, such as those in the pancreatic islet, can influence the synthesis and release of insulin (Mohanan et al., 2005a, b; 2006; Renuka et al., 2005; 2006; Ani et al., 2006a, b, c; Eswar et al., 2006; Balaram et al., 2008).

Spinal cord injuries are often caused by road traffic accidents, whereas fall from height is another significant cause of injury. The spinal cord contains nerve fibres which carry messages between the brain and different parts of the body. If it is damaged by different levels of shearing, one or several of the body functions are impaired and even total paraplegia. In the present scenario there is no procedure for restoring locomotor function to such individuals. Our results showed that GABA and 5HT acting through their specific receptors play a crucial role in the spinal cord regeneration in combination with bone marrow cells. There is proliferation and differentiation of cells re-establishing the connections in the injured spinal cord resulting in the functional recovery of the individual rat (Paulose et al., 2009).

Endogenous progenitor cells can be harnessed to replace neurons lost in neurodegenerative diseases but requires the development of methods to stimulate their proliferation and differentiation. Researchers are also exploring a process called trans-differentiation —“tricking” cells of the bone marrow to produce brain cells or muscle cells. Experiments are done using different neurotransmitters – serotonin and GABA with and without pluripotent bone marrow cells extracted from the same individual given to the site of damage re-established the connection and the functional recovery was observed.

Scientists are developing a number of strategies for producing dopamine neurons from human stem cells in the laboratory for transplantation into humans with Parkinson's disease. The successful generation of an unlimited supply of dopamine neurons could make neuro transplantation widely available for Parkinson's patients at some point in the future. Researchers are now examining the possibility of transplanting GABAergic neurons in the hippocampal region for the treatment of epilepsy.

Neurotransmitters + pluripotent cell infusion at site of injury

Neuronal network re- established after treatment at the damaged site

Conclusion

As the world's aged population increases, the relative effects of many disorders of the nervous system, including stroke and dementia are numerous. Increased awareness of the global effects of neurological disorders should help health care planners and the neurological community to set up appropriate priorities in research, prevention, and management of Parkinson’s disease, epilepsy and Spinal cord injured paraplegics.

Acknowledgements

Dr. C. S. Paulose thanks DAE, DBT, DST, ICMR, UGC, Govt. of India and STEC, Kerala for providing necessary facilities.

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